TTF-1 regulates α₅ nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) subunits in proximal and distal lung epithelium

Abstract

Background

Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) are ligand-gated ion channels comprised of five similar subunits that influence signal transduction and cell turnover. α₅ is a structural subunit detected in many non-neuronal tissues; however, its function during pulmonary development is unknown.

Results

α₅ was assessed by immunohistochemistry and RT-PCR in mouse lungs from embryonic day (E)13.5 to post-natal day (PN)20. From E13.5 to E18.5, α₅ expression was primarily observed in primitive airway epithelial cells while mesenchymal expression was faint and sporadic. α₅ expression was detected throughout the proximal lung at PN1 and extensively expressed in the peripheral lung at PN4, an early stage of murine alveologenesis. An interesting shift occurred wherein α₅ expression was almost undetectable in the proximal lung from PN4-PN10, but significant localization was again observed at PN20. Transcriptional control of α₅ was determined by assessing the activity of reporters containing 2.0-kb and 850-bp of the mouse α₅ promoter. Because perinatal expression of α₅ was abundant in bronchiolar and alveolar epithelium, we assessed transcriptional control of α₅ in Beas2B cells, a human bronchiolar epithelial cell line, and A-549 cells, an alveolar type II cell-like human epithelial cell line. Thyroid Transcription Factor-1 (TTF-1), a key transcription regulator of pulmonary morphogenesis, significantly increased α₅ transcription by acting on both the 2.0-kb and 850-bp α₅ promoters. Site-directed mutagenesis revealed that TTF-1 activated α₅ transcription by binding specific TTF-1 response elements. Exogenous TTF-1 also significantly induced α₅ transcription.

Conclusions

These data demonstrate that α₅ is specifically controlled in a temporal and spatial manner during pulmonary morphogenesis. Ongoing research may demonstrate that precise regulation of α₅ is important during normal organogenesis and misexpression correlates with tobacco related lung disease.

Background

Mechanisms that control pulmonary development involve highly coordinated processes that require precise reciprocal interactions between endodermally derived respiratory epithelium and the surrounding splanchnic mesenchyme. These interactions are predominantly mediated by cell surface receptors and specific ligands elaborated by communicating cells of both germinal origins. Initial primordial lung buds undergo branching to form the main bronchi and extensive subsequent branching events lead to the formation of the intrapulmonary conducting and peripheral lung airways. Distinct populations of differentiated respiratory epithelial cell types then arise, producing a morphologically dynamic arrangement of cells that in due course influence pulmonary function and respiratory efficiency. The temporal and spatial pattern of cell surface receptor expression must therefore be specifically controlled in order to orchestrate mechanisms of proliferation, migration, and differentiation essential during lung morphogenesis.

Thyroid transcription factor (TTF)-1 is a member of the homeodomain-containing Nkx2 family of transcription factors. TTF-1 is expressed in the lung, thyroid, ventral forebrain, and the pituitary [1–3]. While TTF-1 mRNA is initially detected in the mouse at E10 [4] its pattern of expression principally localizes to the lung periphery during pulmonary development [2]. TTF-1 activates the expression of genes critical to lung development and function such as surfactant proteins (SPs), Clara cell secretory protein (CCSP), various growth factors, and molecules required for normal host defense and vasculogenesis [4, 5]. Inactivation of TTF-1 causes tracheo-esophageal fistulae and impairment of pulmonary branching, leading to severe lung hypoplasia [6]. In concert with other transcription factors, TTF-1 binds TTF-1 response elements (TREs) in promoters of target genes in order to regulate gene expression and cell differentiation during lung morphogenesis. While our preliminary studies and the work of others reveal that α₅ is detected in cells known to express TTF-1 [7–9], no regulatory mechanism has been proposed linking the two in the lung to date.

Neuronal and non-neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) combine with glycine, GABA_A, and 5HT3 receptors to form a family of ligand-gated ion channels [10]. nAChRs are pentameric oligomers composed of five related subunits arranged around a central ion channel that allows flow of calcium or sodium following ligand binding. Subsequent to ligand interaction, pathways associated with intracellular signal transduction, proliferation, and apoptosis are induced [11–13]. Several receptor subunits have been identified and are classified as either agonist binding (α₂, α₃, α₄, α₆, α₇, α₉ and α₁₀) or structural (α₅, β₂, β₃ and β₄) [14, 15]. Work performed previously by our laboratory demonstrated that α₇ nAChRs, homomeric receptors composed of five α₇ subunits, are temporally controlled in the lung during development and are transcriptionally regulated by TTF-1 [16].

In the current investigation, we report that α₅ nAChR subunits are expressed in subsets of pulmonary epithelial cells during stages of lung morphogenesis and that these receptor subunits are regulated by TTF-1. This research adds additional insight into TTF-1 regulation of subunits involved in nAChR assembly by joining α₅ and α₇ in conserved regulatory pathways. Furthermore, because comparisons between the human α₅ gene and the α₅ gene in several other species reveal remarkable conservation, TTF-1 and its homologues may be common transcriptional regulators involved in controlling the precision of α₅ nAChR expression in the lung.

Methods

Mouse Models

α₅ expression was assessed from E13.5 to PN20 in lungs from wild type and TTF-1 null mice, each in a C57Bl/6 background. Dr. Jeffrey Whitsett at the Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center (CCHMC) generously gifted TTF-1 null mice. Animal husbandry and use followed protocols approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee at CCHMC and Brigham Young University.

Antibodies

A rabbit α₅ polyclonal antibody (generated and kindly gifted by Scott Rogers and Lorise Gahring at the University of Utah) was generated against epitopes in the cytoplasmic domain of the α₅ protein and has been demonstrated to interact with tissues embedded in paraffin [17, 18]. Antibody specificity was confirmed using immunoblotting and ELISA, revealing that the antiserum reacts only with the α₅ subunit protein to which it was made [19]. While data revealing positive immunostaining for a subset of nAChR subunits in brain samples from both wild type and subunit null animals exists [20, 21], there are no published reports demonstrating such effects in lung tissue or employing α₅ specific antibodies. The α₅ IgG was used at a dilution of 1:800. A rabbit polyclonal antibody raised against Clara Cell Secretory Protein (CCSP) generated at the CCHMC was used at a dilution of 1:1600 to identify Clara cells in the conducting airways. A rabbit polyclonal antibody for TTF-1 was also generated at CCHMC and used to localize type II alveolar epithelial cells (ATII) at a dilution of 1:1000. Specificity of the CCSP and TTF-1 antibodies was determined by Western blot analysis (not shown).

Immunohistochemistry

Immunohistochemical staining for α₅, CCSP, and TTF-1 were performed using standard techniques [22, 23]. Briefly, 5-μm paraffin sections from six mice per group were deparaffinized and rehydrated. Sections were treated with 3% hydrogen peroxide in methanol for 15 min to quench endogenous peroxidase. Development in NiDAB was followed by incubation in Tris-cobalt, which enhanced antigen localization, and by counterstaining with nuclear fast red. Sections were then dehydrated in a series of ethanols, washed in three changes of xylene, and mounted under coverslips with Permount. Control sections were incubated in blocking serum alone.

Plasmid Construction and Mutagenesis

Primers were designed to retrieve 2.0-kb or 0.85-kp of the mouse α₅ promoter by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) using the Expand High Fidelity PCR System (Roche, Indianapolis, IN). The amplified α₅ promoter fragment was directionally cloned into the pGL4.10-basic luciferase reporter plasmid (Promega, Madison, WI) and verified by sequencing. Site-directed mutagenesis of potential TTF-1 binding sites was performed by using the reporter construct (pGL4.10-0.85-kb α₅) and the QuickChange™ Site-Directed Mutagenesis kit (Stratagene, La Jolla, CA). Briefly, synthetic oligonucleotides containing the desired mutation for TTF-1 (CAAT→GGGG) were extended during PCR amplification. The products were digested with DpnI to remove the wild-type DNA. The nicked vector DNA was then transformed into XL1-blue supercompetent cells and repaired. All constructs were verified by nucleotide sequencing.

Transfection and Reporter Gene Assays

Functional assays of reporter gene constructs were performed by transient transfection of Beas2B and A-549 cells using FuGENE-6 reagent (Roche). Beas2B is a transformed human bronchiolar epithelial cell line and A-549 is a human pulmonary adenocarcinoma cell line characteristic of ATII cells. Cells in 35-mm dishes at 40-50% confluence were transfected with four plasmids at the following concentrations: 300 ng pRSV-βgal, 100 ng pGL4.10-2.0-kb α₅ or pGL4.10-0.85-kb α₅, 100-400 ng pCMV-TTF-1 and pCDNA control vector to bring total DNA concentration to 1.2 μg. The cells were allowed to grow to confluence (48 hr), washed with cold PBS, lysed, and snap frozen for several hours. The plates were scraped and centrifuged, and the cleared supernatant was used for both β-gal and luciferase assays. Reporter assays were normalized for transfection efficiency based on the β-gal activity [22]. Luciferase activity was determined in 10 μl of extract at room temperature with 100 μl of luciferase substrates A and B (BD Biosciences, San Jose, CA) for 10 sec after a 2-sec delay in a Moonlight™ 3010 luminometer (BD Biosciences).

RT-PCR

In order to assess α₅ mRNA expression throughout development, total RNA was isolated from whole mouse lungs at various time points with the Absolutely RNA^® RT-PCR Miniprep Kit (Stratagene) and DNase treated. Because α₅ was immunolocalized in bronchioles and alveoli, induction of α₅ mRNA expression was similarly assessed in Beas2B and A-549 cells following transfection with 400 ng pCMV-TTF-1 or control pCDNA vector. 2-μg of total RNA was reverse transcribed using the SuperScript^® III First-Strand Kit according to the manufacturer's instructions (Invitrogen). PCR was performed with 2-μl aliquots of the generated cDNA using Taq polymerase (Roche, Indianapolis, IN) and experiments included no template (lacking cDNA) and no RT (without reverse transcriptase) controls (not shown). Products were electrophoresed on a 1.5% agarose gel with appropriate molecular weight standards. Bands were quantified using Un-Scan-it™ gel digitizing software (Silk Scientific, Orem, UT). Gene expression was assessed in three replicate pools and representative data is shown. Primers used for the PCR reactions include α₅ forward (5'-CTT CAC ACG CTT CCC AAA CT-3') and reverse (5'-CTT CAA CAA CCT CAC GGA CA-3') and GAPDH forward (5'-CGT CTT CAC CAC CAT GGA GA-3') and reverse (5'-CGG CCA TCA CGC CAC AGC TT-3'). PCR parameters included an initial heating at 94°C for 5 m. α₅ and GAPDH were amplified via 30 cycles at 94°C for 45 s, 57°C for 45 s, and 72°C for 45 s. All amplifications were followed by a 7-min extension at 72°C.

Statistical Analysis

Results are presented as the means ± S.D. of six replicate pools per group. Means were assessed by one and two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). When ANOVA indicated significant differences, student t tests were used with Bonferroni correction for multiple comparisons. Results are representative and those with p values < 0.05 were considered significant.

Results

α₅ nAChR Expression During Lung Development

The distribution of α₅ was assessed in mouse lung by immunohistochemistry from E13.5 to PN20. At E13.5 (Figure 1A) and E15.5 (Figure 1B), α₅ was predominantly observed in primitive airway epithelial cells and sporadically detected in pulmonary mesenchyme. While mesenchymal staining diminished through E18.5, α₅ expression in pulmonary epithelium increased and was restricted to luminal cell surfaces (Figure 1D). α₅ expression was abundantly detected in proximal lung epithelial cells at PN1 (Figure 1E), however, by PN4, α₅ expression was only detected in the peripheral respiratory region of the lung (Figure 1F). Staining at PN4, a period that coincides with the onset of alveologenesis, revealed α₅ expression in cells located near alveolar septa characteristic of ATII localization. This pattern of expression in respiratory epithelial cells and minimal to no staining in the proximal lung persisted through PN10 (Figure 1G). BY PN20, α₅ expression was detected throughout the lung, with abundant immunolocalization in proximal airway epithelium as well as in the respiratory compartment (Figure 1H). No staining was observed in sections stained without primary antibody (Figure 1I). The patterns of α₅ expression obtained by immunostaining corresponded with α₅ mRNA expression from E13.5 to PN20 as revealed by semi-quantitative RT-PCR analysis (Figure 2).

Figure 1

Immunostaining revealed distinct patterns of α ₅ expression in the lung during organogenesis. A. α₅ was expressed at E13.5 in primitive airway epithelium (arrow) and sporadically in pulmonary mesenchyme (arrowhead). B and C. During the late pseudoglandular period of development (B, E15.5) and early saccular stage of development (C, E17.5), α₅ continued to localize to pulmonary epithelium (arrows). D. At E18.5, α₅ expression was detected in larger airways (arrows) as well as in primitive respiratory epithelium (arrowhead). E. At PN1, α₅ expression was markedly detected in proximal lung airways (arrow) and only minimally detected in the peripheral lung (arrowhead). F. At the commencement of alveologenesis (PN4), α₅ localized to lung parenchyma (arrow) and was noticeably absent in the airways (arrowhead). G. At PN10, α₅ expression persisted in the respiratory compartment (arrow). H. After alveologenesis progressed to PN20, α₅ was abundantly expressed throughout the lung, being detected in proximal (arrow) as well as distal pulmonary epithelium (arrowhead). I. PN20 sections incubated without primary α₅ antibody revealed no immunoreactivity. Six mice were included in each group and representative images at 40× magnification are shown.

Figure 2

α ₅ mRNA expression in the lung during organogenesis. Semi-quantitative RT-PCR analysis revealed variable abundance of α₅ mRNA expression in whole mouse lung from E13.5 to PN20. Band densities were assessed and normalized after standardization of GAPDH band densities to 1. Although samples were screened from 6 mice at each time point, only a representative single band is shown.

To identify epithelial cells that express α₅, immunohistochemistry was performed on serial sections at PN1. Staining serial sections with TTF-1 (Figure 3A), an ATII cell marker, and α₅ (Figure 3B), revealed α₅ expression in ATII cells with nuclear staining for TTF-1. While α₅ was expressed in many ATII cells (Figure 3A and 3B, arrows) not all ATII cells were identified with α₅ staining. Localization in serial sections was also performed with CCSP, a Clara cell specific marker that identifies non-ciliated Clara cells in the proximal lung that slightly protrude into the airway lumen (Figure 3C). α₅ staining (Figure 3D) appeared to be associated with many CCSP-secreting Clara cells in pulmonary bronchioles (Figure 3C).

Figure 3

α ₅ was expressed by and ATII cells Clara cells at PN1. Staining for TTF-1 (A) and α₅ (B) in serial sections from PN1 mouse lung revealed α₅ is co-expressed with TTF-1 in many ATII cells, but not all (arrows). Staining for CCSP (C) and α₅ (D) also identified consistent α₅ expression in bronchiolar epithelium at PN1 (arrows). All images are at 80× original magnification.

TTF-1 Regulates α₅ Transcription In Vitro

Because there were interesting shifts in the expression of α₅ by ATII cells at various developmental time points (Figure 1E,F,G,H), experiments were planned that tested whether TTF-1 transcriptionally regulates α₅ expression. An assessment of the mouse α₅ promoter sequence revealed the locations of nine potential TTF-1 regulatory elements (TREs) in the 2.0-kb promoter fragment and five in the 0.85-kb fragment (Figure 4A). Because α₅ experienced profound expression changes from proximal lung (Figure 1E) to distal lung (Figure 1F and 1G) before returning to the proximal lung (Figure 1H), we tested the degree of TTF-1 regulation in both bronchiolar epithelium (Beas2B) and ATII-like alveolar epithelial cells (A-549). TTF-1 (100-400 ng) activated the 2.0-kb α₅ promoter in a dose-dependent manner in both Beas2B and A549 cells (Figure 4B and 4C). TTF-1 also significantly induced transcription of α₅ in both cell types when a truncated reporter that contains only 0.85-kb of the promoter was transfected (Figure 4D and 4E).

Figure 4

TTF-1 activated α ₅ transcription in bronchiolar and alveolar epithelial cell types. A. Schematic of α₅ luciferase reporters containing 2.0-kb or 0.85-kb mouse α₅ promoter sequences that include putative TTF-1 response elements (TREs, black rectangles). B and C. TTF-1 dose-dependently induced α₅ transcription by acting on a 2.0-kb α₅ reporter in Beas2B (B) and A-549 (C) cells. D and E. TTF-1 also induced significant increases in α₅ transcription via interaction with a truncated 0.85-kb α₅ reporter. Significant differences in luciferase levels compared to reporter alone are noted at P ≤ 0.05 (*).

To identify potential TREs that are critical in TTF-1-mediated control of α₅ transcription, site-directed mutational analysis was performed resulting in the ablation of putative TREs (Figure 5A). In Beas2B cells, mutation of the second and fourth TRE resulted in a significant decrease in TTF-1-induced transcription compared to the wild type promoter transfected with TTF-1 (Figure 5B). Experiments involving A-549 cells revealed that mutation of any of the five TREs resulted in a significant decrease in TTF-1-induced transcription (Figure 5B).

Figure 5

TTF-1 induced α ₅ transcription via interaction with putative TTF-1 response elements (TREs). A. Schematic of a wild type (WT) α₅ luciferase reporter containing the 0.85-kb mouse α₅ promoter sequence and reporters that contain a 0.85-kb α₅ promoter with each sequential TRE targeted by site-directed mutagenesis (Mutants A-E). B. TTF-1-mediated increases in α₅ transcription were significantly diminished in Beas2B cells when the second or fourth TREs were mutated. C. Each TRE was demonstrated to be significant in regulating TTF-1-mediated α₅ transcription in ATII-like A-549 cells. Significant decreases in TTF-1 induced luciferase activity resulting from each mutant reporter compared to WT + TTF-1 are noted at P ≤ 0.05 (*).

TTF-1 Mediates α₅ Expression In Vitro

In order to further assess the effects of TTF-1 on α₅ expression, Beas2B and A-549 cells were transfected with TTF-1 and α₅ was assessed by RT-PCR. In the absence of exogenous TTF-1, Beas2B and A-549 cells both expressed detectible levels of α₅ (Figure 6). Transfection of TTF-1 24 hours before RNA isolation induced a significant increase in α₅ mRNA expression in both A-549 and Beas2B cells (Figure 6).

Figure 6

α ₅ mRNA expression was induced by TTF-1 in ATII-like A-549 cells and bronchiolar epithelium-like Beas2B cells. A. By semi-quantitative RT-PCR analysis, A-549 and Beas2B cells endogenously express α₅. Transfection with a TTF-1 expression vector 24 hours prior to mRNA isolation, reverse transcription, and PCR amplification resulted in detectible increases in α₅ expression. Representative examples are shown. B. Band densities from six replicates per group were assessed and normalized after standardizing GAPDH band density to 1. When all six replicates were assessed, a significant difference in α₅ expression was detected between TTF-1 and mock transfected cells (*P ≤ 0.05).

TTF-1 Targeting Impairs α₅ Expression In Vivo

Because our data demonstrate that α₅ is expressed in pulmonary epithelium at E18.5 (Figure 1D) and its expression is regulated by TTF-1 (Figures 4, 5, 6), we determined α₅ expression in TTF-1 null mice. TTF-1 null mice die at birth due to significantly reduced branching morphogenesis and severe lung hypoplasia. Expression of α₅ in pulmonary epithelium in the lungs of TTF-1 null mice (Figure 7A, arrow) was nearly undetectable when compared to intense α₅ localization observed in age-matched wild type control lung samples (Figure 7B, arrows).

Figure 7

α ₅ expression was significantly reduced in pulmonary epithelium from E18.5 TTF-1 null mice compared to age-matched with type controls. A. α₅ immunostaining in TTF-null mouse lung revealed almost complete ablation of α₅ expression in pulmonary epithelium (arrow). B. Staining for α₅ demonstrated marked expression in proximal and distal pulmonary epithelium (arrows). All images are at 40× original magnification.

Discussion and Conclusions

The temporal-spatial distribution of α_5, a member of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subunit family, was determined during embryonic and postnatal lung development. Various epithelial cell populations expressed α₅ protein in both the conducting and peripheral air spaces. α₅ was primarily expressed in respiratory epithelial cells during the embryonic, pseudoglandular, cannalicular, and saccular stages of lung development. In addition to expression in the peripheral lung, α₅ was also detected perinatally in distinct populations of bronchiolar epithelial cells. Conducting airway epithelial cell expression persisted throughout lung morphogenesis except from PN4 to PN10, a period that coincides with significant parenchymal differentiation in the alveolar stage of lung development. Immunolabeling of α₅ in the fetal lung was observed primarily on luminal epithelial cell membranes suggesting that α₅ accumulates on apical cell surfaces in order assemble receptors needed in the postnatal lung. Alternatively, apical expression may suggest that α₅ subunits combine in utero to form functional nAChRs which bind ligand and signal events that are essential during organogenesis. Several groups have shown that nAChRs are expressed in airway epithelium and that they form functional receptors as demonstrated by electrophysiological analyses [8, 24, 25]. Localization of α₅ with cells that express CCSP and TTF-1 suggests that α₅ is regulated by TTF-1 and, therefore, may play a role in the mediation of paracrine signaling between respiratory epithelial cells during pulmonary morphogenesis.

Intriguing aspects of functional pulmonary nAChRs in utero are data related to acetylcholine (ACh) as a local signaling molecule synthesized by many non-neuronal cells [26]. In order for ACh to function as a signal in the lung, ACh must be synthesized and secreted locally. Choline is incorporated into pulmonary bronchiolar cells by a choline high-affinity transporter (CHT), synthesized into ACh by choline acetyl transferase (ChAT), and packaged into transport vesicles by a vesicular ACh transporter (VAChT) [26]. Availability of choline in the lung is also possible due to its derivation during the recycling of surfactant proteins and membranes [27]. In addition to acetylation during the generation of ACh, choline has also been demonstrated to be an agonist for a subset of ligand binding nAChR subunits such as α₇ [28]. While evidence for choline and acetylcholine ligation primarily identifies with the biology of α₇, the possibility exists that similar agonists interact with receptors structurally maintained by α₅.

α₅ was co-expressed with TTF-1 in epithelial cells that contribute to primordial tubules early in lung development [29]. TTF-1 regulates cytodifferentiation and formation of functional respiratory epithelium [5]. Several additional co-expressed transcriptional regulators such as GATA-6 and FoxA2 are also observed in airway epithelium during the period from E13.5 to 15.5 [3, 30]. Recent preliminary studies performed in our laboratory reveal that GATA-6 and FoxA2, both transcriptional targets of TTF-1, also individually and synergistically activate the α₅ promoter, suggesting complex interplay between TTF-1 and other important transcription factors. TTF-1 and various co-regulators such as GATA-6 and FoxA2 interact during the regulation of specific genes critical to lung function, including CCSP, surfactant proteins, growth factors, and VEGFa and VEGFr2 essential in vasculogenesis [31]. While additional research is still necessary, the observations that α₅ was transcriptionally induced by TTF-1 via interaction with specific promoter response elements and significantly diminished in TTF-1 null mouse lung reveals the importance of TTF-1 in the orchestration of α₅ regulation. This research also demonstrates that α₅ and other nAChR subunits such as α₇ [16] may contribute to an expanding group of important developmental genes regulated by TTF-1. Furthermore, because the α₅ gene and message maintain remarkable conservation across species (Table 1), TTF-1 and its homologues may influence common transcriptional mechanisms involved in the defined temporal and spatial pattern of α₅ nAChR expression in the lung.

Table 1 Percent homology between human α5 nAChR subunits and other species

Even though TTF-1 specifically induced significant α₅ expression in pulmonary epithelium, the temporal-spatial distribution of TTF-1 and α₅ during lung development were not completely identical. For example, whereas TTF-1 is an epithelium-specific transcription factor, α₅ protein was expressed in both the epithelium and mesenchyme at E13.5. The expression of α₅ is therefore likely regulated by the activity of several transcription factors with overlapping expression patterns. Because TTF-1 regulates target gene expression in concert with other regulatory factors including GATA-6, FoxA2, NF-1, RAR, and AP-1 [31], it is likely that the temporal-spatial distribution of α₅ expression is influenced in a complex manner by a host of transcription factors.

Nicotinic cholinergic signaling via α₅ nAChR subunits in airway epithelial cells is likely affected by nicotine. Published reports demonstrate that cells exposed to environmental tobacco smoke, or equal concentrations of nicotine, induce sequential severalfold increases in α₅ and α₇ expression [32]. Plasma nicotine levels in smokers fluctuate between 10 and 200 nM and epithelial cells directly exposed to smoke may experience nicotine levels that are 5-10-fold greater [33, 34]. Exposure to cigarette smoke during pregnancy adversely affects lung development as manifested by significantly reduced branching morphogenesis [35], increased respiratory illness [36], altered pulmonary function [37], and permanent airway obstruction in the proximal lung [38]. Nicotine crosses the placenta and directly affects lung development in utero via interaction with nAChRs in the developing and post-natal lung. Our studies demonstrate that while receptors that contain α₅ are expressed in populations of epithelial cells during lung development, receptor availability may contribute to adverse lung development and morphological perturbation when noxious ligands are present.

Recently the α₅ gene (CHRNA5) and other receptor subunits located in the chromosome 15q24-25 region have been the topics of intense investigation due to a correlation between an α₅ variant and nicotine dependence [39]. While research is ongoing, analysis of this specific chromosomal locus reveals that α₅ and its variants significantly influence susceptibility to smoke related lung cancer and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) [39–41]. Understanding the developmental role of α₅ and TTF-1-mediated mechanisms that control its precise pattern of expression during lung organogenesis will prove beneficial in elucidating the role of α₅ in the progression of lung disease commenced in utero by tobacco exposure.

In conclusion, α₅ nAChR subunits are expressed in specific epithelial cell types in the lung during development. α₅ expression is developmentally regulated by several factors including TTF-1, a molecule centrally involved in normal lung formation. Our data reveals specific regulation of α₅ expression by TTF-1; however, such expression may be altered by nicotine exposure. While nicotine may directly influence normal cholinergic signaling during morphogenesis that involves α₅-containing nAChRs, the misregulation of α₅ may also predispose individuals to lung cancer and COPD.