Table 2 Therapeutic role of extracellular vesicles in various lung complications

COPD

Adipose-derived stem cells

Artificial nano-vesicles

FGF2

Increase in epithelial cell proliferation, inhibition of emphysema and regeneration of damaged lung of mice

[22]

PH

Mesenchymal stromal cell

Exosomes

–

Reduction in vascular remodeling and hypoxic PH, inhibition of pro-proliferative STAT3 signaling in pulmonary arterial endothelial cells

[242]

Mesenchymal Stem Cells

MVs

–

Reduction in mean pulmonary arterial pressures, right ventricle hypertrophy in monocrotaline-PH rat model

[243]

Mesenchymal stromal cell

Exosomes

–

Promoted mitochondrial function and TCA cycle in pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells

[244]

Mesenchymal Stem Cells

Exosomes

miRs-34a, −122, −124, and − 127

Reversed PH in monocrotaline mice model

[126]

Mesenchymal Stem Cells

EVs

–

Reversal of bone marrow endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs) mediated PAH

[129]

Endothelial cells

MPs

Endoglin

Improved survival and proliferation of pulmonary endothelial cells

[245]

Asthma

Mesenchymal Stem Cells

Exosomes

–

Promoted proliferation and immune-suppression capacity of T regulatory cells

[246]

Adipose derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells

EVs

–

Reduced airway remodeling and eosinophil counts in lung tissue and BALF of ovalbumin mice.

[247]

Mesenchymal stromal cells

EVs

–

Abrogated inflammatory response by increasing IL-10 and reducing Th2 and Th17 associated cytokines in the mice model of asthma

[248]

Bone marrow derived mast cells

Exosomes

IgE receptors (FcξR1)

Reduced IgE levels and mast cell activation in allergic asthma mouse model

[172]

Human bone marrow derived mesenchymal stem cells

EVs

–

Prevent development of airway hyper responsiveness and pulmonary inflammation in response to allergen

[248]

Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Exosomes

–

Prevention of allergic reactions by increasingTreg and decreasing the Th2 response.

[249]

Human mesenchymal stromal cells

Small EVs

miR-146a-5p

Reduction in the infiltration of inflammatory cells, Th2 cytokines and airway hyperresponsiveness

[250]

Lung Cancer

Dendritic cell derived exosomes (DEX)

Exosomes

MAGE tumor antigen

Modest stabilization of NSCLC patients in response to DEX immunotherapy

[251]

ALI/ARDS

Mesenchymal Stem Cells

MVs

Keratinocyte Growth Factor mRNA

Reduction in pulmonary edema and influx of inflammatory cells in BAL of E. coli endotoxin –induced ALI mice;

[252]

Mesenchymal Stem Cells

Exosomes/MVs

Mitochondria/ miRNA

MSC-MVs transfer depolarized mitochondria to macrophages and increase macrophage bioenergetics; MSC-exosomes modulate TLR signaling and cytokine release in macrophages

[253]

Mesenchymal stromal cells

EVs

Mitochondria

Reduced inflammation and lung injury; enhanced oxidative phosphorylation in macrophages

[254]

Mesenchymal Stem Cells

EVs

Runx1 p66 and p52

Enhanced junctional integrity of injured endothelial cells and decreased lung pathology

[255]

Mesenchymal Stem Cells

EVs

–

Modulated cytoskeletal signaling in endothelial cells and attenuated lung vascular permeability

[256]

Mesenchymal Stem Cells

MVs

–

Increased alveolar fluid clearance and reduced protein permeability and inflammation; increased antimicrobial in ex-vivo perfused human lung model of bacterial pneumonia

[257]

Umbilical cord mesenchymal stromal cells

Exosomes

Angiopoietin 1 and hepatocyte growth factor

Restoring alveolar fluid clearance and protein permeability of influenza virus infected alveolar epithelial cells

[258]

Endothelial progenitor cells

Exosomes

miR-126

Enhanced proliferation, migration of endothelial cells by promoting RAF/ERK signaling, ameliorated LPS-induced lung injury

[259]

Inducible pluripotent stem cells

Exosomes

siRNAs against ICAM-1

Successfully delivered siRNA into HMVECS and inhibited expression of ICAM-1 and neutrophil adhesion

[260]