Fig. 1

Associations between weekly PM_2.5 levels over gestation and FEV₁ z-score. This figure demonstrates the association between PM_2.5 exposure over pregnancy and FEV₁ z-scores using a BDLIM assuming week-specific effects, for (a) overall sample, and (b) interaction by sex. Models were adjusted for maternal age and education, and z-scores were adjusted for child’s age at spirometry test, sex, race/ethnicity, and height. The y-axis represents the change in FEV₁ z-scores corresponding to a 1 μg/m³ increase in PM_2.5; the x-axis is gestational age in weeks. Solid lines show the predicted change in FEV₁ z-score. Gray areas indicate 95% confidence intervals (CIs). A sensitive window is identified for the weeks where the estimated pointwise 95% CI (shaded area) does not include zero