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Table 1 Risk factors for exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease [6, 21–23, 25, 122]

From: Pharmacological strategies to reduce exacerbation risk in COPD: a narrative review

Risk factors

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Older age

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Lower body mass index

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Continued smoking

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Poor exercise capacity

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Severity of airflow obstruction

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Previous exacerbations (including hospitalizations for exacerbations)

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Longer duration of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

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Co-morbidities (e.g. bronchiectasis, cardiovascular disease, pulmonary hypertension, gastroesophageal reflux)

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Respiratory tract infections (viral and bacterial

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Chronic bronchial mucus production

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Environmental pollutants

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Colder weather/temperature